Effects of the space environment on articular cartilage homeostasis: a review

Long-duration spaceflight poses risks to musculoskeletal health, yet articular cartilage remains understudied. This review explores how microgravity and radiation compromise its homeostasis. Mechanical unloading suppresses chondrocyte metabolism and disrupts extracellular matrix equilibrium. Concurrently, radiation, oxidative stress, and immune activation induce DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, and senescence, exacerbating matrix degradation. We assess physical, nutritional, and pharmacological countermeasures, highlighting the need for integrated strategies protecting joints during space exploration.