Recent advances in the discovery, characterization, and therapeutic efficacy of antler stem cells and their secreted extracellular vesicles

Deer antlers are the only mammalian appendage capable of complete regeneration, with antler stem cells (AnSCs) playing a central role in this process. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) secreted by AnSCs function as the key paracrine mediators that mediate the multifaceted biological functions of these stem cells. Herein, we systematically review the research progress in the discovery, characterization, therapeutic applications, and scalable expansion technologies of AnSCs and their EVs. AnSCs exhibit the properties of both embryonic stem cells and mesenchymal stem cells, and their EVs have low immunogenicity and high bioactivity, demonstrating the remarkable application potential in regenerative medicine. Although current studies have elucidated some of their key functions and mechanisms, critical challenges remain for the development of therapeutic agencies, including the standardized procedure of production, establishment of quality control systems, and identification of molecular targets. This review summarizes current advances in AnSCs and their EVs, aiming to provide a new avenue for subsequent clinical translation and industrial application.