Construction and Functional Engineering of Bio-Integrated Micro/Nanorobots for Theranostic Applications

Bio-integrated micro/nanorobots combine intrinsic biological properties with engineered capabilities, offering promising platforms for biomedical intervention. These systems can exploit biological motility, recognition and therapeutic activity while incorporating controlled navigation and imaging functions. Their development is progressing from active delivery toward theranostic platforms that coordinate transport, localization and treatment. However, integrating actuation, imaging and therapy within a single platform while preserving biological functions remains a major engineering challenge. Here, a framework connecting biological building blocks, construction methods and theranostic requirements is presented. Guided by this framework, engineering strategies based on whole cells and cell-derived components are systematically reviewed to clarify how they establish propulsion, in vivo imaging and therapeutic functions. Emphasis is placed on material selection, integration site, assembly sequence, and opportunities to simplify construction through intrinsic biological functions and multifunctional materials. Despite substantial progress, challenges in biological sourcing, long-term safety and reproducible manufacturing remain barriers to clinical translation. Future directions in personalized construction, standardized production and theranostic integration are outlined. This Review provides guidance on constructing bio-integrated micro/nanorobots for theranostic applications, opening new opportunities for precise intervention and personalized medicine.