Cell‐Based Micro/Nanorobots: From Living Carriers to Living Therapeutic Specialists

ABSTRACT Cell‐based micro/nanorobots (CMNRs) integrate intrinsic biological functions with engineered capabilities, constituting an emerging class of biohybrid robotic platforms. Unlike fully synthetic micro/nanorobots, whose functions depend entirely on artificial materials, CMNRs are constructed from living cells or cell‐derived components and can exploit unique biological capabilities. Over the past decade, CMNR research has progressed from the development of simple delivery carriers toward therapeutic specialists capable of performing diagnostic and therapeutic tasks within distinct organs. Although the complex and highly heterogeneous physiological environments of different organs impose formidable barriers, CMNRs possess intrinsic organ‐specific compatibility shaped by evolution, offering a promising strategy for improving their performance in specialized medical tasks. Here, we propose a novel framework for constructing organ‐specific therapeutic platforms. Guided by this framework, we systematically review and critically assess the biological properties, robotic functions, and recent in vivo applications of CMNRs. Despite substantial progress, a considerable gap remains between laboratory prototypes and clinical translation. This Review identifies key translational barriers that must be addressed to ensure the safety, controllability, and functional reliability of CMNRs in clinical use. Overall, a future trajectory toward organ‐specific theranostic systems is outlined to provide a conceptual basis for the clinical development of next‐generation CMNRs.