Combat exposure

1. Combat exposure has no effect on mortality in humans.

   “While CE did not predict mortality, those who also experienced civilian trauma were 16% more likely to die prematurely.”

   Humansin those who experienced combat exposure

   Forty Years of Stress & Coping Research at the VA Normative Aging Study

   GSA 2025 abstract·Dec 31, 2025

1. Combat exposure has no effect on cognitive functioning in humans.

   “combat exposure was not associated with any cognitive outcome”

   Humansin male veteransmales

   DOES MILITARY VETERAN STATUS PREDICT COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN LATER LIFE?

   GSA 2024 abstract·Dec 31, 2024

1. Combat exposure raises the risk of PTSD symptoms in humans (13 times more likely).

   “WWII Veterans with moderate CE were 13 times more likely to experience PTSD symptoms 45 years later”

   HumansWWII Veterans

   Forty Years of Stress & Coping Research at the VA Normative Aging Study

   GSA 2025 abstract·Dec 31, 2025

1. Combat exposure predicts heart disease in humans (odds ratio = 1.92, 95% confidence interval = 1.13-3.31).

   “combat exposure in Vietnam was a significant predictor (odds ratio = 1.92, 95% confidence interval = 1.13-3.31)”

   Humansin deployed Vietnam veterans 50 years post-War

   Impact of Persistent Combat-Related PTSD on Heart Disease and Chronic Disease Comorbidity in Aging Vietnam Veterans

   Journal of occupational and environmental medicine·Dec 18, 2024

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