Family and community violence: implications for executive dysfunction, attention problems, and epigenetic age acceleration in childhood and youth

OBJECTIVE: Cognitive changes in individuals who have experienced stress and trauma have gained increasing prominence in the literature. In this study, we investigated the associations between executive dysfunction, attention problems, and experiences of family violence (both psychological and physical) and community violence throughout childhood, as well as the relationship between these factors and epigenetic age acceleration in youth. METHODS: The sample included 86 individuals from a 500-student cohort in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil who were followed for 17 years beginning in 2005. Data were collected through questionnaires with mothers (or guardians) and children. The scales included the Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (executive dysfunction), the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment (attention problems), the Conflict Tactics Scale (family violence), and the Coisas que Vi e Ouvi Scale (community violence). DNA methylation age and acceleration were estimated using Zhang's epigenetic clock. Exposure-outcome relationships were assessed using Spearman correlations and sex-controlled linear regressions. RESULTS: Hierarchical linear regression identified psychological family violence (p = 0.03) as a key factor in executive dysfunction, regardless of sex. Community violence was also a factor in attention problems (p = 0.01), with psychological violence nearing significance. Epigenetic age acceleration was correlated with attention problems and executive dysfunction, but not with any form of violence. Individuals exposed to high psychological and community violence were most vulnerable to age acceleration. High community violence and low physical family violence during development were the most notable factors in executive dysfunction. The small sample size and attrition warrant cautious interpretation of the results. CONCLUSION: Girls were more affected by psychological family violence, while boys had higher community violence scores, reflecting structural inequalities and socialization. Violence across developmental stages interacts with cognitive outcomes and epigenetic changes.