European Journal of Pharmacology · Jun 25, 2026

Effect of metformin on anti-Alzheimer activity of rivastigmine in aluminum chloride-induced Alzheimer's disease in rats: A behavioral, biochemical, immunohistopathological evidence of crosstalk between amyloid, tau, autophagy, and apoptosis

By Abdel-Aal RA, Abdelnabi S, Badary DM et al.

AIM: This study investigates how the anti-Alzheimer's effectiveness of rivastigmine (RIVA) is affected by the antidiabetic drug metformin (MET). METHODOLOGY: Male rats were randomly divided into a control group, an Alzheimer's disease (AD) group receiving aluminum chloride (AlCl₃), a RIVA-treated group, a MET-treated group, and a RIVA + MET combination group. Cognitive performance was assessed using passive avoidance (PA), the radial arm maze (RAM), the Morris water maze (MWM), and novel object recognition (NOR) tests. Hippocampal microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT), beta-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and autophagy marker Sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1/p62) were measured, while amyloid-beta (Aβ) and caspase-3 expression were analyzed immunohistochemically. Histopathology and electron microscopy were used to assess neuronal integrity. RESULTS: MET, RIVA, and their combined treatment mitigated the neurodegenerative alterations induced by AlCl₃. The combination of MET + RIVA failed to yield significant differences in behavioral performance [PA, RAM, MWM, and NORT], MAPT levels, and AChE activity compared with the treatment with RIVA monotherapy. However, the combination therapy showed significant reductions in hippocampal BACE1, Aβ deposition, and SQSTM1/p62 levels, indicating enhanced suppression of amyloidogenic processing and improved autophagy. Although differences between MET + RIVA combination and RIVA monotherapy were not statistically significant for these markers, the combination markedly reduced caspase-3 immunoreactivity compared with the diseased group, indicating greater attenuation of apoptosis. CONCLUSION: These results highlight the crosstalk among the amyloid, tau, autophagy, and apoptotic pathways in AD and suggest that the MET + RIVA combination showed promising molecular improvements but no clear behavioral superiority, indicating the need for further optimization.

doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2026.179087 PubMed 42349816 Interventions